Learning Goals Q 1
Anatomy and Physiology (BM41055)
Technische Universiteit Delft
Aanbevolen voor jou
Reacties
Gerelateerde Studylists
Anatomy & PhysiologyPreview tekst
LEARNING GOALS ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY QUARTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND CELL PHYSIOLOGY 1. List the three major regions of a generalized cell and their functions Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is the outer layer of a generalized cell and helps with maintaining the shape of the cell and aids in and exocytosis Cytoplasm: The inner (ICF) part of a cell, housing organelles and small structures that aid in the functioning (homeostasis) of the cell Nucleus: The core of a generalized cell that controls the cells activity. 2. Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions The Plasma Membrane (PM) consists of a bilipid layer: the hydrophilic heads and the hydrophobic tails. The layer separates ECF from ICF. When the PM is damaged it will repair itself through the properties of these heads and tails. Within the bilipid layer there are integrated and peripheral proteins for cell communication. The outside of the cell consists of proteins called the glycocalyx. Other cells recognize each other through this glycocalyx. 3. Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport processes Passive transport (energy from motion, not ATP) Diffusion (from higher to lower concentration) o Simple diffusion directly through the PM lipid bilayer (oxygen in, CO2 out) o Facilitated diffusion Carrier diffusion trough protein specific proteins (sugars proteins) Channel diffusion trough channels (ions, water) o Osmosis (diffusion of solvent trough PM) Active transport (energy from hydrolysis (ATP)) o Primary active transport of substance AGAINST concentration gradient (NaKa pump, H, Ca) o Secondary active coupled transport (2 solutes) trough primary gradient (proteins, Ca) o Endocytosis (all kinds of vesicle transports) eating of cells (protein debris, like white blood cells) drinking of solutes (absorption of solutes in kidneys) Receptor mediated endocytosis (cholesterol) o spitting out substances to ECF 4. Compare and contrast simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis relative to substances transported, direction, and mechanism Simple transports oxygens and fats along the concentration gradient Facilitated transports glucose and cholesterol into the cells 11. Discuss the structure and functions of ribosomes, the endoplasm reticulum, and the Golgi apparatus, including functional interrelationships among these organelles Ribosomes are small dark staining granules composed of protein and RNA. Free ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm and they make soluble proteins. Membrane bound ribosomes are attached to the membrane and they make proteins for use in the PM. o They in general are the protein synthesizers. The endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) is a series of interconnected tubes and membranes in the cytoplasm. The rough ER make protein and protein vesicles (trough ribosomes therefore rough). The smooth ER catalyzes reactions within the cell (cell helpers). The Golgi apparatus consists of membranous sacs. It modifies, concentrates and packages proteins from rER and directs (transports) them to designated parts of the cell. 12. Name and describe the structure and function of cytoskeletal elements The cytoskeletal elements are the skeleton of the cell. They are rods running through the cytosol consisting of tubes, micro filaments and intermediate filaments. Motor proteins in the cytoplasms move these filaments trough the cell for protection. 13. Outline the structure and function of the nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin. The nuclear envelope is a permeable membrane around the nucleoplasm. Containing lots of ribosomes and pores which connect to the rER. These together with the pores regulate transport in and out of the nucleus. The nucleolus is the dark core of a nucleus. Here, the ribosomes are produced The chromatin is the dark threadlike material composed of DNA and proteins. The DNA constitutes (regulates) all the gens in the body. 14. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials Graded potentials are short lived potentials that can cause depolarization or hyperpolarization. Graded potentials can sum spatially and temporally to cause a growing potential which in turn can go to the hillock to cause an action potential. Graded potentials die out eventually as they spread An action potential depolarizes the neighboring cell membrane spot. The action potential goes through the axon and die out. Can cause depolarization of neighboring axons and neurons. 15. Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons. A depolarization occurs on a neuron (through a stimulus). Na rushes into the cell which makes the membrane potential more positive. This stimulates the K gates to slowly open and the Na gates to close. This repolarizes the membrane. Then the K gates close but this goes slowly so the PM hyperpolarizes. Then it is back to normal. The depolarization stimulates the neighboring parts to also depolarize. The propagation is only one way because of the refractory periods of the cells. 16. Define absolute and relative refractory period. Absolute refractory period is from threshold of AP until hyperpolarization starts. During this time no new AP can be conducted Relative refractory period is from hyperpolarization start until hyperpolarization is done. During this time a new AP can be conducted but the stimulus needs to be larger (because of the hyperpolarization). 7. Describe influence of heart contraction on the coronary circulation During contraction the coronary circulation is ineffective due to too much compression of the myocardium. 9. Describe structure and function of cardiac muscle fibers Cardiac muscle fibers are striated cells with 1 nucleus that contract with the muscle filament system. They are short fat and branched cells. Cardiac muscle cells can excite themselves and are therefore autorhytmic. Gain calcium from SR 10. Describe differences between cardiac and skeletal muscle Both striated muscles Both contract with sliding filaments Skeletal muscle need be excited through neurons, cardiac muscles excite themselves. Skeletal muscles are voluntarily contracted and cardiac muscles are involuntarily contracted. Skeletal muscles are slow, cardiac muscles are fast. Lots of mitochondria in cardiac muscle get tired fast. 11. Describe the events of cardiac muscle cell contraction SA generates impulses. AV nodes and bundle quickly depolarize the neurons in the myocardium with fast gated Na channels (till threshold). At threshold Ca rushes in which depolarizes even further. Then AP plateaus, because Na closes and Ca keeps flowing in. Then the cells repolarizes because the K channels finally open. Long refractory period (almost as long as contraction) to prevent tetany. 12. Name Electrical pathways SA impulses AV AV bundle spreads it out left and right branches purkinje fibers depol. 13. Draw an ECG, including individual waves 14. Name abnormalities in ECG No P wave means poor SA node No QRS means no AV conduction Irregular ECG means heart fibrillation 15. Describe heart sounds and timing and events of the cardiac cycle. closing of AV at ventricular closing of SL at diastole Diastole: chambers of heart are relaxed and AV are opened Atria systole: the atria contract and top off ventricles Ventricular systole: the ventricles contract (AV snaps shut) AND RESET 16. Name and explain effect of factors influencing CO and HR Cardiac output (blood flow per minute) each ventricle in 1 minute is affected HR and SV. HR is affected the parasympathetic nervous system. More active means more CO etc. HR rises with nervous system giving of epinephrine. Also certain hormones can influence the effect of epinephrine SV can change trough venous return (preload) and contractility of the heart cells trough sympathetic activity and vice versa with parasympathetic activity. 17. Draw relation of Left atrium contracts during systole of the atria. The ventricle fills until the preload is reached. Then the BP will increase. 24. Explain how blood flow is regulated in the body in general and in specific organs Autoregulation takes the blood where it is needed. This is regulated trough metabolic controls (if 02 is low blood flow increases locally) and they are mostly vasodilators. There is also myogenic controls which retains tissue perfusion despite variations of pressure. Works together with the metabolic controls. Skeletal muscle increase the blood flow of themselves during strenuous exercise. This is a metabolic response to low levels of oxygen. Blood flow in brain is auto regulated to local neuronal need Skin uses blood flow for temp changes. So regulated temp receptors. Lungs get more blood flow when oxygen is high (so reverse in regard to other tissue) 25. Define circulatory shock and list probable causes When the blood vessels are inadequately filled and blood cannot circulate. Hypovolemic shock, low blood volume vascular shock, inadequate vascular pumping due to vasodilation cardiogenic shock, heart is inadequate 26. State the importance of the pulmonary circuit Brings blood in close contact with alveoli so there can be an exchange of O2 in and CO2 out. 27. Describe the general function of the systemic circuit The systemic circuit provides the blood supply to all body tissues delivering oxygen and nutrients it picks up along the way. 28. Name and give the location of the major arteries and veins in the system circulation MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM 1 3. Compare and contrast the four bone classes and provide examples Long a sort of elongated bone that is found in all the limb bones except the kneecap and the wrists. The general long bone consists of a diaphysis or long middle part of the bone. The diaphysis consists of a thick collar of compact bone. In the center of the diaphysis you can find the medullar cavity. This cavity contains fat and is called the yellow marrow cavity. Both the bony ends are the epiphyses and they are a little broader than the diaphysis. The outer shell of the epiphyses is made of compact bone and the inside is made of spongy bone. The epiphyses is covered with a thin layer of hyaline cartilage (for the joint). Between the epiphyses and the diaphysis there is the epiphyseal line. This is a disk that grows during childhood to lengthen the long bone. The diaphysis is covered with the periosteum. This periosteum is supplied with nerve fibers and blood vessels. They pass intro the medullar cavity through foramina. The internal part of the bone is covered with the endosteum. This layer consists of bone cells. Short bone (talus), flat bone (skull) and irregular bone (vertebrae) consist of sheets of spongy bone covered compact bone. These bones consist of periosteum (with nerve fibers and blood vessels) and endosteum (for cell making). There is no shaft of epiphyses like in the long bones. There is no medullar cavity but they DO have bone marrow. 2. List and describe seven important functions of bones Bones are a framework that support organs and limbs Bones provide a framework that protect vital organs like the thorax protects the lungs heart etc. Bones provide an anchor point to which bones can hang on to and start motion. Mineral and growth factor bones store minerals like calcium and phosphate and release them when needed. Blood cell hematopoiesis starts in the red marrow cavities of epiphyses of long bones Fat Fat it stored in bone cavities (like the medullar cavity in the diaphysis). Hormone bones produce osteocalcin that helps regulate bone formation. 4. Describe the histology of compact and spongy bone Compact bone is made out of osteons (haversian systems). These are elongated cylinders parallel to the axis of the bone. They are a group of hollow tubes with multiple lamellae. The fibers of the lamellae are all in a different orientation to withstand torsion stress. In the center of each osteon there are canals (haversian canal) containing small blood vessels and nerve fibers. The osteons grow from inside to outside. Osteoblasts surround the vessels and fibers and secret bone matrix. This forms tiny holes which are canaliculi Spongy bone is a trabecular tissue that aligns (adapts) precisely along stress lines. (Bone forms to stress) 5. Compare intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification Intramembranous ossification forms the cranial bones (frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal) and the clavicles. Most of these are flat bones. First ossification centers appear in the fibrous connective tissues that make the first spongy bone. Than osteoblasts produce osteoid that calcifies. The bone receives vessels and creates a periosteum and then the edges are replaced with lamellar bone (compact). Endochondral ossification creates all bones under the skull (except of course clavicles). It uses the hyaline cartilage as a model for production. A bone collar grows around ossification center. Cartilage in the center calcifies and grows cavities. Blood vessel invades these cavities and spongy bone forms. Then the diaphysis elongated and the medullar cavities form. Then the epiphyses ossify except for the epiphyseal line. 6 Compare the location and remodeling functions of the osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts Osteoblasts are bone forming cells that secrete bone matrix. Osteoblasts respond to places where there is lots of mechanical stress. When activated they create new bone matrix and calcify it. Osteoclasts are bone cells that resorb surrounding bone matrix. If the Calcium levels in the blood are low, Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) is released and osteoclasts are 8 Classify joints structure and function Fibrous joints are joints that are formed fibrous tissue. You have sutures which are just seams like the epiphyseal plate. You have syndesmoses which is the case when bones are connected ligaments. At last there are also gomphoses which are joints like the teeth. Cartilaginous joints are joints that connect 2 bone pieces together with cartilage. The bones are immovable though (like the pubic symphysis, vertebrae etc.) Synovial joints are those in which the articulating bones are separated a fluidcontaining cavity. This arranges a great lot degrees of freedom. They exist of articular cartilage which cover the bone ends. Blah blah. 8 What factors influence the stability of synovial joints Articular when the surface really stimulates movement (like a deep socket for a smooth ball joint in the hip joint) the stability of the joint is greatly improved. ligaments generally unite bones and propagate the motion along a fixed path. More ligaments means more stability, but only ligaments means poor stability. Muscle the tendons of muscle stabilize joints because they are kept tight the muscle tone. 9. Compare the three basic types of muscle tissue Skeletal skeletal, striated voluntary Cardiac cardiac, striated, involuntary Visceral visceral, not striated, involuntary 10. List four important functions of muscle tissue Producing movement Maintaining posture Stabilizing joints Generating heat BLOOD AND BLOOD VESSELS 1. Describe composition and physical characteristics of whole blood Whole blood volume is accounted of erythrocytes (red blood cells), buffy coat consisting of platelets and leukocytes (white blood cells) and of the volume is accounted blood plasm. 2. What are the 8 functions of blood Distribution of oxygen and nutrients to the body Distribution of C02 and waste out of the body Transport of hormones from thyroid to target organs Maintain body temp Maintain blood pressure ( blood volume) Maintain pH Protect the body not leaking out Protect the body from infections through antibodies 3. Describe the composition of blood plasma Sticky fluid of volume) which is mostly water. The plasma consists of a shit ton of dissolved solutes including nutrients gases hormones waste and products of the cell.
Learning Goals Q 1
Vak: Anatomy and Physiology (BM41055)
Universiteit: Technische Universiteit Delft
- Ontdek meer van:
